Imperium Sine Fine

Review: The Frontiers of Imperial Rome by David Breeze

2012-03-05T11:54:00.004-08:00

The Frontiers of Imperial Rome by David Breeze (Pen & Sword, 2011)

"In fact, in order to understand frontiers, it is essential to visit them and see the position of frontiers, forts and towers in the landscape; there is no alternative, the surviving remains and the topography within which they sit have to be observed in person."

There are some books which every Roman historian should have on their bookshelf. Millar's The Emperor in the Roman World, Syme's Roman Revolution and Matthews' Roman Empire of Ammianus all spring to mind. Professor David Breeze's new book should also find a place on the same bookshelf.

Breeze begins his study by noting the lack of syntheses of archaeological and historical evidence in treatments of the Roman frontiers. Many recent works on frontiers have focussed predominantly on the historical and epigraphic sources. There is clearly a need for a synoptic overview of all that is known about Roman frontiers across the empire. Breeze is certainly well qualified to produce such a study and has a lifetime of experience in dealing with Roman frontier sites across Europe and beyond.

The strength of this study lies in Breeze's breadth of knowledge. He covers a range of themes from the deployment of troops across the imperial frontiers to the various treaties and regulations which governed Roman relations with their neighbours. Breeze presents a masterful summary of the epigraphic, historical and archaeological material. It is rare to read a work which is as comfortable with archaeological sites as it is with Classical texts. It is hard to see how this study will be bettered in future years.

Breeze argues that the purposes of Roman frontiers systems operated on a number of levels. Their primary purpose of defence cannot be denied. Yet the Roman army preferred to engage the enemy in the open, rather than behind a wall. There is considerable variation in the nature and scale of frontier systems across the empire. Most Roman frontier systems follow local topography. Variations in the design of frontier installations suggest considerable flexibility in the decision making process, although whether this was the responsibility of the emperor or the senior officers on the ground is unclear. Frontiers limited the movement of individuals. This would limit the impact of brigands (although not completely successfully). Perhaps more importantly, frontier systems allowed the Roman army to monitor the movement of goods and merchants both in and out of imperial territory. This economic role seems to be well evidenced in the historical sources. More impressive barriers also potentially had a symbolic role as a demonstration of imperial power.

This book deserves the widest possible readership. It represents the broadest treatment of Roman frontier systems to have been published in recent years. It is important not only for the frontiers themselves, but also for topics relating to the army, imperial administration and diplomatic relations.

Vindolanda Writing Tablets (Tabulae Vindolandenses IV Part 2)

2012-02-21T10:38:00.000-08:00

The 2011 volume of Britannia contains the latest publication of the tablets from Vindolanda found during excavations in 2001 - 2003. Most tablets are fragmentary, although there are a range of names and titles covered in the material under discussion. The article is available free for download here:

http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayFulltext?type=1&pdftype=1&fid=8411613&jid=BRI&volumeId=42&issueId=-1&aid=8411611

Edward Luttwak on the Iliad

2012-02-20T12:11:00.000-08:00

Excellent article on the importance of the Iliad by Edward Luttwak published in the London Review of Books. The full article can be read here:

http://www.lrb.co.uk/v34/n04/edward-luttwak/homer-inc

Books, Reviews and Blogging

2012-02-14T10:39:00.000-08:00

This week is Reading Week, meaning that I should be enjoying my time off. However, I find myself more snowed under than ever. In part, this is my own fault. I have a shelf full of books I want to read.

At the moment I am half way through 'Into the Silence' by Wade Davis, which I am really enjoying. His description of the carnage of the Western Front, in contrast to the impenetrable silence of the Himalayas is haunting. Next along the shelf is 'The Frontiers of Imperial Rome' by David Breeze. I'm really looking forward to reading this work by one of the leading authorities on Hadrian's Wall (and Roman frontiers in general). I also have 'The Levelling Sea' by Philip Marsden lined up waiting for me. I am becoming increasingly interested in looking at new approaches to history, particularly in terms of how the story of a single individual or place can be used to illustrate wider historical events. I'm not sure yet how this might be useful for the Classical world, where detailed source material of this nature is usually lacking, but I haven't given up on this approach yet.

As well as this personal reading, I have a further two books which I'm reading in order to review. Both look really good. I also have a number of texts which I need to read for teaching purposes. Not least of these is Michael Whitby's edited collection of essays on Sparta. Some of these look particularly useful for the course I am teaching on Spartan politics and society.

Alongside all of this, I am hoping to increase my blogging activity over the next few weeks. It seems that I get less and less time for reading and blogging. How do other people manage it?

Obituary for Dr Jim Summerly

2012-02-12T10:55:00.001-08:00

The Society of Antiquaries has published a brief obituary for Dr Jim Summerly, which can be accessed here. Dr Summerly completed his PhD at Durham University under the supervision of Brian Dobson. He was one of an influential group of historians and archaeologists who studied aspects of the Roman army at Durham University, a trend begun by the masterly teaching of Eric Birley. Dr Summerly became an authority on Hadrian's Wall and acted as a guide for recent pilgrimages to Hadrian's Wall.

I never had the pleasure to meet Dr Summerly. However, I am very familiar with his work as I read his PhD thesis entitled 'Studies in the Legionary Centurionate' during the course of my own research. I have happy memories of spending a few days pouring over the manuscript in Durham University library. The thesis was a fascinating piece of work which highlighted a number of interesting patterns in the recruitment and career patterns of legionary centurions. As far as I am aware, the thesis was never published. This is a shame, as I am sure that it would be guaranteed a wide readership among Roman military scholars and enthusiasts alike.

PTSD in Ancient & Medieval Warfare

2012-02-10T12:44:00.000-08:00

An article by Thomas Heebøll-Holm of the SAXO Institute at the University of Copenhagen has featured in a number of recent news articles. In his article (in Danish but reproduced in English here) Heebøll-Holm argues that there is significant evidence that medieval knights suffered from PTSD. This research is based on a medieval text by Geoffroi de Charny which advises knights on preparing for the psychological trauma of combat. Some of the descriptiona within de Charny's work resemble the symptoms of PTSD.

It is clear that the possible occurence of PTSD in the historical record is a popular topic for military historians. A number of ancient historians have explored evidence for PTSD in Greek and Roman military accounts, including Lawrence Tritle and the fundamental work of Jonathan Shay. However, a number of issues trouble me with regard to the possible occurence of PTSD in the ancient world. These will also apply to medieval history.

Firstly, I think that it is potentially problematic to diagnose psychological conditions based solely on accounts from the historical sources. These are rarely written by the individuals who may experience PTSD, and often encourage modern scholars to deduce more from them than is actually present. The depth of biographical information which would allow us to diagnose the symptoms of PTSD is simply lacking.

Secondly, it is important to differentiate cultural and societal attitudes to violence and combat between the modern and ancient world. We live in a world where, for most of us, pain is minimised and controlled. Violent acts are uncommon, as is premature death. We have, for the most part, little experience of bloodshed. Combat therefore takes a large psychological toll on those who experience it. In the ancient world, however, violence and bloodshed was more common. Individuals would have been familiar with pain and the close proximity of death from childhood. It is therefore possible that combat itself would have been less traumatic and therefore less likely to inflict psychological injuries.

Thirdly, recent research has tentatively suggested a link between PTSD and the use of explosives in modern warfare. Initial statistical analysis indicates that soldiers who have experienced concussion as a result of an explosive device are more likely to be diagnosed with PTSD. This would therefore make PTSD far rarer in the ancient world, when explosive devices played a much smaller role in combat operations.

The search for evidence of PTSD in the military history of the ancient and medieval worlds has produced some interesting results and it is clearly a topic which deserves to be explored. However, I feel that caution is needed in establishing a clear framework for diagnosing psychological trauma in the past.

Further Details on the Benwell Altars

2012-01-27T11:00:00.000-08:00

Side details from one of the altars at the Temple of Antenociticus in Benwell.

Temple of Antenociticus and Vallum Crossing at Benwell

2012-01-27T10:35:00.000-08:00

The following pictures were taken at the Vallum Crossing and Temple of Antenociticus at Benwell on Hadrian's Wall. Both sites are now under the protection of English Heritage. The photograph above shows the Vallum Crossing, heading towards the fort.

The photograph above shows a section of the Vallum next to the bridge. The Vallum was a large ditch on the south side of Hadrian's Wall.

This photograph shows the Temple of Antenociticus which was situated outside of the fort of Condercum. Antenociticus was a local god. The head of the original cult statue is now in the Great North Museum in Newcastle. The site features on the specifications of OCR A Level Classical Civilisation and AQA A Level Archaeology.

PTSD & The Roman Army

2011-12-28T03:54:00.000-08:00

This post is a review of the following article: Melchior, A. 'Caesar in Vietnam: Did Roman soldiers suffer from Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder?' Greece & Rome 58.2 (2011).

The recognition of symptoms of PTSD among soldiers and warriors in the Classical world has been especially popular in recent years. Most work on this topic has involved Greek history and literature. Jonathan Shay's books 'Achilles in Vietnam' and 'Odysseus in America' compared the experiences of Homeric heroes with Vietnam veterans in America. Shay's purpose was to demonstrate how his use of Homeric poetry had helped to rehabilitate combat veterans by allowing them to see that their experiences were similar to those that Homer described. Lawrence Tritle has also been instrumental in promoting the occurence of PTSD in the Classical sources for ancient warfare. His book, From Melos to My Lai, made clear links between combat experience in the ancient and modern worlds.

The study of the impact of PTSD has spread from medical research into the historical realm. Historians of 20th Century military history have a wealth of resources to explore in searching for evidence of the impact of PTSD in the lives of veterans. Ancient historians have far fewer sources to utilise, particularly when it comes to the private lives of combat veterans. The purpose of Melchior's article is to examine whether it is valid to assume that Roman soldiers were as prone to PTSD as their modern counterparts.

The scarcity of accurate descriptions of the private thoughts of Roman veterans makes it extremely difficult to identify whether they were in fact traumatised by their experiences of combat. The appearance of soldiers in literary texts, such as Juvenal or Apuleius' Golden Ass, are not reliable sources for the appearance of PTSD. Military tombstones tend to glorify combat and martial valour. Even the sources which do describe combat tend to use narrative techniques which obscure or ignore the full horror of Roman warfare.

Due to these deficiencies, ancient military historians have long used comparative material to explain or illustrate their depiction of Classical warfare. Problems are created, however, when psychological conditions are imposed on armies of the past from a comparative perspective. Melchior notes that the Roman relationship with death was much different to that of the modern world. Pain would have been a familiar feature of life in the Roman world. Mortality levels were higher, and life expectancy shorter. From an early age, Romans would have been exposed to violence, blood and death in the amphitheatre. Dead bodies would have been familiar to them.

Psychological stress factors would also have been different for Roman soldiers. They need not fear suicide bombers, stray explosives or IEDs. Melchior highlights a recent study of PTSD symptoms in soldiers returning from Iraq (C.B. Nemeroff et al., 'Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A State-of-the-science Review', Journal of Psychiatric Research 40, 2006). The study suggests that there is a correlation between concussive injuries and the occurence of PTSD symptoms. Concussive injuries are clearly linked to the use of explosives. Concussive injuries would probably not have been a particularly common type of injury for Roman soldiers, compared to slash wounds, for example. Could this indicate that the prevalence of PTSD as a result of combat is directly linked to the use of explosives in modern warfare?

Melchior's article is a timely reminder of the need for caution when identifying the symptoms of PTSD in Classical sources. The use of comparative material is an essential feature of ancient military history - but we should always question how valid that material actually is.

Collapse at the House of Loreius Tiburtinus, Pompeii

2011-12-22T11:40:00.000-08:00

A number of news sites are reporting a pillar collapse at the House of Loreius Tiburtinus in Pompeii:

http://www.chicagotribune.com/sns-rt-italy-pompeiicollapsel6e7nm2mn-20111222,0,1421157.story

I'm not sure how serious the damage actually is, but this is only the latest of a series of collapses within Pompeii of varying severity.

The House of Loreius Tiburtinus (otherwise known as the House of Octavius Quartio) is one of the best known houses in Pompeii. It had been substantially remodelled in the period before the eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79. The house is unusual for the amount of room dedicated to the garden. The house itself is relatively small in comparison. A triclinium and biclinium are positioned to allow diners to enjoy the visual axes created by two canals. The decoration of the house includes a painting of a priest of the cult of Isis.

Knowledge of the House of Loreius Tiburtinus is essential for students studying the OCR Classical Civilisation module on 'City Life in Roman Italy'.

You can see more images of the house here.

Ghost Stories for Classicists

2011-12-18T08:34:00.003-08:00

I am delighted to see that Oxford University Press have published a full collection of M.R. James' ghost stories. James was an academic medievalist and palaeographer and the scholarly world pervades each of his stories, which are often set in libraries and universities - usually with a young scholar as the 'hero' of each tale. I have yet to read an author who can surpass M.R. James in his terrifying portrayal of the supernatural. Perfect Christmas reading for Classicists!

Ghost Stories of

2011-12-18T08:34:00.001-08:00

Is this the home of the Pendle Witches?

2011-12-17T10:29:00.000-08:00

I'm still to be convinced:

http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/dec/08/pendle-witches-water-mummified-cat

It seems a little convenient that it was discovered shortly before the 400th anniversary of the Pendle witch trials. The mummified cat is interesting, but not necessarily evidence for witchcraft.

You can find more information on the Pendle witch trials here.

Dig Deep for the Young Archaeologists Club!

2011-12-17T09:54:00.000-08:00

The Council for British Archaeology have launched a major fundraising campaign to support their local branches of the Young Archaeologists Club. The YAC has provided thousands of children (including myself) with an introduction to archaeology and the ancient world in general.

However, recent cuts to CBA funding means that there is less money available to support YAC branch activities. For this reason, the CBA is appealing for public support for ongoing branch activities.

You can find further details of the appeal and how to add your support here.

The Ancient World: Free for All?

2011-12-17T09:30:00.000-08:00

In recent weeks, I have been pondering the future provision of courses relating to Ancient History, Classics and Archaeology, as well as related subjects. It is clear that the current financial crisis and the ensuing cuts to education budgets will have a significant impact on teaching at all levels for years to come. Changes to higher education funding are already leading to structural changes within universities. Beyond the academy, even the Young Archaeologists Club is facing a grave financial threat.

The financial downturn will also impact on the courses which potential applicants can afford to study. The Ancient World has always been a popular topic for adult education courses, whether of a practical or theoretical bent. Now, however, funding for adult courses has been slashed across the sector.

Where do we go from here? How do we encourage new learners to engage with the ancient past?

Funding remains the key problem, but it is clear that our subjects will only survive if we are able to attract more people to study the ancient world at all levels. The easiest way to achieve this is through the provision of free (or very low cost) adult education courses. I do not underestimate the numerous obstacles in this plan. Nevertheless, I am certain that there is a real grassroots demand from the general public to learn about the ancient past. Boosting public interest in the subject will inevitably lead to greater student recruitment for courses teaching the ancient world across all educational sectors. Free adult education courses would, inevitably, require both the goodwill of relevant funding bodies and the services of willing teaching staff. I am convinced that only an innovative approach to the provision of courses on the ancient world will help the subject to weather the current financial storm.

Longman-History Today Book of the Year Longlist

2011-11-17T11:43:00.000-08:00

Winter King: The Dawn of Tudor England, Thomas Penn (Allen Lane)

Magpies, Squirrels and Thieves: How the Victorians Collected the World, Jacqueline Yallop (Atlantic Books)

The Social Universe of the English Bible: Scripture, Society, and Culture in Early Modern England, Naomi Tadmor (Cambridge University Press)

The Rule of Moderation: Violence, Religion and the Politics of Restraint in Early Modern England, Ethan H. Shagan (Cambridge University Press)

Children in the Roman Empire: Outsiders Within, Christian Laes (Cambridge University Press)

Sacred Violence: African Christians and Sectarian Hatred in the Age of Augustine, Brent D. Shaw (Cambridge University Press)

Evening's Empire: A History of the Night in Early Modern Europe, Craig Koslofsky (Cambridge University Press)

Shattering Empires: The Clash and Collapse of the Ottoman and Russian Empires 1908-1918, Michael A. Reynolds (Cambridge University Press)

The Great Famine: Ireland's Agony 1845-1852, Ciaran O Murchadha (Continuum)

Mission to China: Matteo Ricci and the Jesuit Encounter with the East, Mary Laven (Faber and Faber)

Map of a Nation: A Biography of the Ordnance Survey, Rachel Hewitt (Granta Books)

Liberty's Exiles: The Loss of America and the Remaking of the British Empire, Maya Jasanoff (HarperPress)

The Castrato and His Wife, Helen Berry (Oxford University Press)

Being Soviet: Identity, Rumour, and Everyday Life under Stalin, Timothy Johnston (Oxford University Press)

Managing the Body: Beauty, Health, and Fitness in Britain 1880-1939, Ina Zweiniger-Bargielowska (Oxford University Press)

Hitler's Foreign Executioners: Europe's Dirty Secret, Christopher Hale (The History Press)

Reprobates: The Cavaliers of the English Civil War, John Stubbs (Viking)

The Unfinished Revolution: Making Sense of the Communist Past in Central-Eastern Europe, James Mark (Yale University Press)

Tibet: A History, Sam Van Schaik (Yale University Press)

Palmerston: A Biography, David Brown (Yale University Press)

More details here

Changing Face of War Conference

2011-11-16T12:23:00.000-08:00

Interested in ancient and modern warfare? Blackwell's are running an online conference this week entitled 'The Changing Face of War'. The conference is designed to celebrate the publication of their Encyclopedia of War. The conference features a series of papers by leading academics, online discussion and publishing workshops.

You can find the conference here.

Children in the Roman Empire

2011-10-14T13:09:00.001-07:00

Review of a couple of books on children in the Roman world on the Times Literary Supplement site. You can read it here.

The Bisitun Inscription & The Accession of Darius

2011-10-02T09:35:00.001-07:00

The Bisitun Inscription is one of the most important epigraphic sources for Achaemenid history. It records the circumstances of the accession of Darius the Great and the early years of his reign. One of the particular advantages of using this inscription, is that it can be checked using the account of Herodotus of the same episode.

According to the Bisitun inscription, the Persian king Cambyses (son of Cyrus the Great) murdered his brother Bardiya. This murder was kept secret, and no one knew that Bardiya was dead. Cambyses then left to conquer Egypt. In the meantime, a magus named Gaumata, who had an uncanny resemblance to the king's dead brother, had seized power in Persia.

Cambyses died in Egypt, leaving the empire in the hands of the imposter. Gaumata (posing as Bardiya) became a tyrant and began a campaign of terror against those who might realise his true identity. Darius alone, according to this inscription, had the courage to remove the imposter.

This, according to the Bisitun inscription, is the story of Darius' seizure of power. In my next posting I will discuss Herodotus' description of the same episode.

Classics Cuts at RHUL

2011-09-30T14:53:00.000-07:00

An article from the London Evening Standard about the campaign to save Classics at Royal Holloway can be found here.

A reminder that the official petition to show your support for the campaign can be accessed here.

Athenian Democracy: A Teaching Resource

2011-09-24T08:20:00.000-07:00

I have just come across a brilliant site on the development and history of Athenian democracy. You can find the site here. It has a number of very useful articles on the major changes to the Athenian political system and links to the major relevant Classical texts. Many of the articles are available as PDF downloads.

Humanities Matter

2011-09-18T09:30:00.000-07:00

I'm just posting a link for the Humanities Matter campaign group, which seeks to promote and defend world leading teaching and research in the Humanities and Social Sciences in UK universities. It is endorsed by leading academics across a range of subject specialism. At this time of looming budget cuts across the education sector, it is surely time for such a broad campaign. You can find the campaign site here.

Advice for New Classics & Ancient History Undergraduates

2011-09-04T09:53:00.000-07:00

With the start of term rapidly approaching, I thought it appropriate to offer some advice to new undergraduates on making the most of their studies:

Learn a (Classical) language. Recent surveys indicate a serious recruitment problem for schools seeking Classics teachers. Latin and Greek are in real demand. Languages might seem like hard work, but they could be the key to your future.

Travel. Many universities offer bursaries and scholarships to allow their students to experience material firsthand. Travel boosts your knowledge of material in context. It also, so I'm told, broadens the mind.

Gain experience. Start thinking now about long term career plans. If you fancy teaching, try to find opportunities to observe lessons or help at local youth groups. If you see yourself working in a museum, then search for internships or voluntary positions.

Read. Go beyond the syllabus to broaden your knowledge of the ancient world. Don't be scared to engage with Classical texts on your own intiative. Likewise, read the great works of Classical scholarship. Every undergraduate should read Syme's Roman Revolution and Gibbon's Decline and Fall. Make the most of the resources of your university library.

Work hard. Bodies awarding postgraduate funding often check results from all of your modules - don't slack off in your first year as it could have long term implications.

Get value for your money. You are paying a large sum of money to be taught by experts in their field. Make the most of this by asking questions, joining discussions and challenging your assumptions.

Enjoy every minute.

Rethinking the Persian Wars

2011-08-26T09:41:00.001-07:00

I'm going to be spending a lot of time over the next year teaching and writing about Herodotus and the Persian Wars. I intend to post many of my thoughts on this blog. At the outset though, it is worth thinking briefly about the historiography of the conflicts between Greece and Persia.

Traditionally, the Persian Wars were seen from a Classical perspective. Inevitably, this created a Hellenocentric discourse, which viewed the conflict as being of great significance - even in the modern world. The battle of Marathon, in particular, has been portrayed as the crucible which forged democracy. The modern film 3oo has been instrumental in depicting the freedom loving Greeks against the tyrannical and oppressive Persians.

More recently, the study of the Achaemenid empire has provided a contrasting viewpoint of a conflict mostly waged on the western borders of a huge empire. Marathon, Salamis, Thermopylae and Plataea were only of minor importance for an imperial state which was used to the tides of war. The Achaemenid empire was expansionist - and had lost armies before (notably in Egypt). Revolts closer to the heartland of the empire were also of more importance to them than the activities of a few fractious Greek states on their periphery.

It is also noteworthy that relations between the Greek states and Persia continued even after the debacle at Plataea. One thinks of the Athenian hero Themistocles living out his days in the Achaemenid court and Persian involvement in the Peloponnesian War. Not all Greek states were implacably opposed to Persian expansion - even during the invasion of 480/479 BC.

The conflict between Greece and Persia should not be studied as a series of battles, but rather through the longue duree. For the Greek states, the Persian conflict was a cold war, which sometimes grew very hot indeed.

Obituary for Dr Simon Price

2011-08-23T09:36:00.001-07:00

The Guardian has an online obituary for Dr Simon Price, written by John North. Dr Price is best known as a historian of Graeco-Roman religion, particularly for his work on the imperial cult. His book 'Rituals and Power' is a set text for undergraduates wishing to understand the local dynamics of the Roman imperial cult. Dr Price also recently co-authored a book on the history of the Classical world.

You can read his obituary here.

Virgil & Libya

2011-08-22T08:41:00.000-07:00

A timely article from History Today on Virgil and Libya. Read it here.

The Roman Fort Project

2011-08-22T03:25:00.001-07:00

I've just come across news of the Roman Fort Project, which has been awarded £50,000 from Barclays Take One Small Step competition to support new businesses.

The purpose of the project is to create a Roman fort using traditional techniques, as well as an education centre to be used by visitors and school parties. There are also plans for the construction of a civilian settlement next to the fort and agricultural land farmed using Roman methods. The project is currently looking for land in Cheshire or Flintshire on which to start the project.

This sounds like a fantastic project, which would have clear educational value. A number of sites (such as Wallsend and Arbeia) have reconstructed specific buildings from within a fort - but this is an excellent opportunity to create the whole complex.

Ramesses II - The Greatest Leader?

2011-08-22T03:21:00.000-07:00

A brief article I wrote on the reign of Ramesses II can be found over on the Military Times website here. Undoubtedly there are other contenders for the title of 'greatest leader' from the Ancient World, but Ramesses' diplomatic and propaganda skills certainly put him in a strong position.

Altar for the Goddess Brigantia

2011-08-19T14:00:00.000-07:00

This is an altar to the goddess Brigantia from Arbeia (South Shields). The inscription reads:

'To the sacred goddess Brigantia, Congennccus willingly and deservedly fulfils his vow"

The goddess Brigantia was closely linked to the Brigantes tribe and thus northern England. Her worship persisted into the Roman period. Indeed, it seems to have been revitalised through the presence of the Severan family during their northern campaign in the late second and early third century AD. This altar is good evidence for the persistence of Celtic deities during the Roman occupation.

The Tombstone of Aurelia Aureliana

2011-08-16T11:13:00.001-07:00

This is the tombstone of Aurelia Aureliana, originally from Carlisle. It is now in the Great North Museum in Newcastle. The inscription reads:

'To the shades of the departed and Aurelia Aureliana, who lived for forty one years. Ulpius Apolinaris [has placed] this stone for his wife.'

Although this looks like an average Roman tombstone, there are some interesting aspects. You may notice that the pillars to either side of Aurelia are topped by pine cones. Aurelia is carrying flowers, possibly poppies. Both of these items are symbolic. Pine cones symbolise life, whereas poppies represent sleep - suggesting that Aurelia was sleeping and not dead. This may indicate that Aurelia was a Christian.

Some of the carving is particularly crude - especially her facial features. Unusually for a female tombstone, her garment does not reach down to her ankles. This suggests that the image was originally meant to represent a male figure. It is possible that her husband Ulpius bought a generic tombstone from a mason's yard and had Aurelia's inscription added to it. This was probably a cheaper alternative to having a brand new tombstone carved from scratch.

E-Petition for the Teaching of Latin and Classical Civilisation in Schools

2011-08-15T10:15:00.001-07:00

A new e-petition has been launched to ask for wider provision of Latin and Classical Civilisation in schools. The main point is:

"The Government should aim to install the teaching of Classical Studies, even at a very rudimentary level, in schools to improve the breadth of education provided and also to dispel the elitist tag that it has been unfairly given."

You can sign the petition here.

Warfare in Antiquity: Approaches and Controversies

2011-08-11T10:20:00.000-07:00

Off to the Warfare in Antiquity: Approaches and Controversies conference at University College Dublin this weekend, so I won't be updating until next week. Papers at the conference range from the Aegean Bronze Age to the late Roman army. Further details are available on the UCD site here.

An African Lady in Roman York?

2011-08-10T11:22:00.001-07:00

The discovery of a female from Roman York of possible African origin should not be too surprising. After all, there is significant evidence for a multi-cultural population in the city. As a legionary base, soldiers would have been drawn from across the empire. African-style cooking pots have been discovered in York and across the North of England, suggesting that Septimius Severus brought African troops with him for his campaign in Caledonia.

An article from Antiquity published last year is available online here. It discusses the scientific analysis of the remains of a female inhabitant of Roman York, which seems to prove that she was of African descent. Indeed the ivory bracelet which was found buried with her, may have been a personal display of her ethnic origins.

It is a worthy reminder of the vibrant multiculturalism of Roman Britain.

The Gough Map Online

2011-08-10T05:27:00.000-07:00

The Gough Map, the oldest road map of Britain, is now available online in a new digital edition. It allows you to search the map for specific locations. There are also a number of accompanying essays and commentaries. You can find the site here.

Roman infant burials may be due to ritual

2011-08-09T03:58:00.000-07:00

The story of the the burial of 97 newborn babies at a Roman site in Buckinghamshire caught the attention of the press last year, when it was claimed to represent a Roman brothel. A new article at the BBC site suggest that there may have been a ritual explanation for the burials. You can read it here.

Visiting Hadrian's Wall

2011-08-08T12:00:00.000-07:00

Summer is a fantastic time to explore historic sites. It is a great opportunity for students to broaden their knowledge of the archaeology and ancient history of Britain. Visitors to Northern England should take note of the AD 122 bus which travels between Carlisle and Newcastle. It stops at a number of major Roman sites including Vindolanda, Housesteads and Birdoswald. You can find the timetable here.

Latin in London

2011-08-07T09:11:00.000-07:00

Boris Johnson, in his role of Mayor of London, has called for volunteers to broaden participation in Classics in London in the run up to the 2012 Olympics. Volunteers are required to either teach Latin or provide talks for school children on aspects of the Classical world. Further details are available at the Classics Library here.

Joey Barton & the Value of Classics

2011-08-02T14:18:00.001-07:00

What better example of the importance of Classics in the modern world than the use of a quotation from the Aeneid by a Premier League footballer? Joey Barton, the Newcastle United midfielder, has been placed on the transfer list and, it seems, has been fined two weeks wages for an outburst on Twitter against the club. Appropriate then to see that Virgil's Aeneid Book 5 was quoted on Joey's Twitter page today! Read it here.

'Gladiator' Cemetery at York: An Alternative View

2011-07-30T08:47:00.000-07:00

The Rogue Classicism blog notes that some of the skeletons from Driffield Terrace in York are about to go on public display. This particular cemetery has been subject to a great deal of discussion and debate, as well as a number of television documentaries of varying quality.

The excavation at Driffield Terrace yielded a total of 80 skeletons, of which 60 were more or less intact. 45 skeletons showed evidence of decapitation. The skeletons date from across the Roman period. Currently, the leading theory to explain the unusual nature of the cemetery is that these skeletons belong to gladiators who were killed in the arena at York.

I am unconvinced by this theory for a number of reasons. Readers wishing to consult the evidence for themselves should take a look at the York Archaeological Trust website here.

The skeletons are physically unusual in that they are on average 2 cm taller than the rest of the population of York and more heavily built. There is also evidence that, in around a third of the skeletons, one arm was c. 5 mm longer than the other. This suggests prolonged and frequent use of one arm - perhaps through training with a sword. The physical profiles of these individuals would perhaps fit gladiators, but certainly fit Roman soldiers. York, after all, was the major legionary base in the north of England and legionaries were generally drawn from other provinces, rather than the province in which they served.

The signs of blunt force trauma and other wounds on some of the skeletons reveal lives associated with violence - which again applies to both gladiators and soldiers. However, I am unsure how such a high frequency of decapitation fits with the gladiator hypothesis. There are simpler ways to finish off a wounded gladiator (cutting his throat, blunt force trauma etc). I can't help thinking that there must be another reason for the use of decapitation at this site.

Execution is a possibility, but I find it unlikely that executed criminals would be buried in the way these bodies obviously were. In particular, the skulls were buried with the rest of the corpses, instead of being put on display or abused separately. I think it likely as well that if this were an execution cemetery, we would be more likely to see mass/group burials rather than separate internments, as seems the case here.

One of the key pieces of evidence for the gladiator hypothesis is the fact that one of the skeletons has toothmark on the pelvis which match a large carnivore (lion, tiger or bear). Lions and tigers immediately make us think of the arena. However, bears were not uncommon in Roman Britain. Indeed, the poet Martial mentions that bears were exported from Britain to Rome. It is not unlikely then that this wound could result from a hunting incident. One of my favourite inscriptions from Roman Britain (RIB 1041 add.) records a successful hunting expedition by an army officer in Weardale and gives thanks 'for taking a wild boar of remarkable fineness which many of his predecessors had been unable to bag'. I would suggest that hunting was a reasonably frequent activity performed by soldiers and officers, if only to relieve the boredom of otherwise unremarkable postings.

If this was a cemetery of Roman soldiers, why so many decapitations? It was used as a form of execution, but would it occur with this frequency? I think the answer must be that these decapitations must have occured post-mortem as a form of ritual. Decapitated skeletons have been found at other sites in Britain from the Roman period and beyond. The little we know about Iron Age religion suggests that the head had a special religious significance in Britain prior to the Roman conquest. It is unlikely we will ever understand the belief system behind this practice of removing the heads of the deceased, but the fact that they were buried with the rest of the corpse suggests it was an act of respect, rather than a punishment.

In conclusion, the evidence available at present suggests to me that the skeletons at Driffield Terrace belonged to legionaries of VI Victrix stationed in York. Although we cannot rule out that these men were gladiators, there is no evidence to suggest that they weren't soldiers (who would have been more numerous in the city). After death (which for some of them was certainly as a result of violence) some had their skulls removed as part of a mortuary ritual. The skulls were then placed with the rest of their bodies in their graves. As exciting as a 'gladiator cemetery' might be, I think this glimpse into an unusual mortuary ritual is even more fascinating.

Crowdsourcing Classical Archaeology?

2011-07-28T03:15:00.000-07:00

The Egypt Exploration Society and Oxford University are collaborating on a new online project to open papyrology to the general public. The Ancient Lives project will allow anyone to transcribe texts from Oxyrhynchus using their internet connection (no knowledge of Greek needed). This is a real opportunity to promote academic engagement with the wider public. The transcribed texts will eventually be published in forthcoming volumes of The Oxyrhynchus Papyri.

If successful, this project could herald a new dawn of crowdsourcing in Classical archaeology. Similar projects have been used in the past to analyse aerial photographs and satellite imagery for ancient sites.

You can access the Ancient Lives project here.

Archaeopteryx knocked off his perch?

2011-07-28T03:12:00.000-07:00

Sorry for the awful pun - but a new fossil from China may replace archaeopteryx as the crucial link between dinosaurs and birds. You can see further details here.

Fresh doubts over Early Christian 'antiquities'

2011-07-27T08:34:00.000-07:00

It seems that not a week goes by without news of more 'discoveries' of early Christian texts, often with a very dubious provenance. The popularity of Dan Brown's books have obviously contributed to the phenomenon (as has Indiana Jones). The BBC have an interesting article on the subject here.

The Tombstone of Regina (South Shields)

2011-07-27T04:22:00.000-07:00

This is the tombstone of Regina ('Queen'), which can today be found in the Roman museum at South Shields. It is conventionally referenced as RIB 1065 add.

Regina is shown seated as a respectable Roman matron. She is wearing jewellery on her neck and wrists. Regina wears a robe over her tunic. In her lap she holds a distaff and spindle. On her left is a box containing her wool. By her right hand stands her jewellery box.

The inscription reads:

'To the spirits of the departed (and) to Regina (his) freedwoman and wife, a Catuvellaunian, aged 30, Barates of Palmyra (set this up)'

Clearly, Barates of Palmyra bought Regina as a slave and freed her to become his wife. Beneath the Latin inscription, you will notice a second script, which is Palmyrene and reads

'Regina, the freedwoman of Barates, alas'

This is clear evidence for multi-culturalism at South Shields, on the edge of the empire, during the Roman period.

Interestingly, we also have Barates' tombstone, from Corbridge (RIB 1171 add). The tombstone is of poor quality and reads:

'To the spirits of the departed, Barates of Palmyra, vexillarius, lived 68 years'

Clearly this is the same individual, demonstrating that he stayed in the North East of England after the death of Regina. The term vexillarius is interesting. Barates was not a military man - there is no sign of an army unit here. Some scholars have suggested that Barates made a living from making/selling army standards - thus explaining his presence near Hadrian's Wall. However, it seems unlikely that there was such a constant demand for new standards that it was possible to make a comfortable living from it. An alternative suggestion is that Barates carried the standard of some sort of trade guild.

Images of Roman Britain

2011-07-27T04:20:00.000-07:00

Over the next few weeks, I am going to be posting my own photographs of sites and artefacts from the North East which are of interest to students studying Roman Britain. They will be particularly relevant for students studying Roman Britain as part of their A Level in Ancient History or Classical Civilisation. Teachers and students should feel free to use my images as they wish.

'Pharaoh: King of Egypt' Exhibition Review

2011-07-25T09:07:00.001-07:00

'Pharaoh: King of Egypt' opened at the Great North Museum in Newcastle on 16th July, and is due to run until 25th September. The exhibition represents a collaboration between the Great North Museum and the British Museum, who have loaned the exhibits on display.

The purpose of the exhibition is to illustrate the various roles which the pharaoh fulfilled in Egypt and to highlight how the figure of the pharaoh changed over time. In this respect, the exhibition is a great success. It illustrates the role of the pharaoh as a priest, ruler, general and diplomat. It also describes how pharaohs were treated in death. A vast range of artefacts and sculptures are on display, from across the breadth of Egyptian history. Of particular interest are items which show foreign rulers in their Egyptian guise, such as Alexander the Great and Darius I.

Alongside the artefacts, the displays are supplemented by an introductory video, computer touch screens and a well designed set. There are also activities for children. One of the benefits of such an exhibition is the presence of the existing Egyptian gallery within the museum, which is also well worth a visit.

This exhibition is destined to be one of the best museum events of the year in the North East. It is well worth a visit and shouldn't be missed. Full details of the exhibition (including a series of free lectures) are available here.

Cave Art on the Gower Peninsula

2011-07-25T08:51:00.001-07:00

The BBC News website is reporting the discovery of a carving of a reindeer in an undisclosed cave on the Gower Peninsula in Wales. You can read the news report here. The discoverer, Dr George Nash of Bristol University, suggests that it could be date to around 14,000 years ago. The carving is currently undergoing testing to ascertain the correct date.

The abstract of a paper given on the discovery for the British Rock Art Group at Durham University is available here.

The Festival of British Archaeology

2011-07-23T08:40:00.001-07:00

The Festival of British Archaeology runs until Sunday 31st July. It is organised by the Council for British Archaeology and is designed to broaden participation among the general public for all aspects of archaeology. Events are taking place across the UK. You can find details of all the activities here.

Dumbledore the Classicist

2011-07-23T08:24:00.001-07:00

Further to my previous post on Harry Potter and Classics, I came across an article on Wikipedia claiming that the character of Dumbledore was based on the eminent Classicist, Professor T.P. Wiseman. You can read the article here.

Professor Wiseman has had a long and distinguished career in Classics. He currently serves as Emeritus Professor of Roman History at Exeter University. His many influential books include 'New Men in the Roman Senate', 'The Myths of Rome' and a number of Classical translations. Professor Wiseman taught J.K. Rowling during her time as a Classics undergraduate at Exeter.

Unfortunately, it seems that Professor Wiseman has denied that he is connected to Dumbledore. Nevertheless, wouldn't it be great to think that one of the great teachers portrayed in modern literature is actually based on a Classicist?

C.S. Lewis & the Aeneid

2011-07-21T07:34:00.001-07:00

There is an interesting article here on the publication of fragments of C.S. Lewis' translation of the Aeneid here.

I find it fascinating that the young Lewis identified himself with Aeneas. Although indelibly associated with Oxford and later Cambridge, Lewis was born and raised in Belfast, Northern Ireland. Perhaps this sense of being an 'outsider' influenced his attraction to the story of Aeneas' search for a new home. Aeneas left Troy after he saw it ravaged and destroyed by the Greeks. Lewis likewise left Ireland after an incredibly traumatic experience, in his case the death of his mother. Lewis saw active service during the First World War and may have felt some sympathy with Virgil's graphic depiction of the futility of war.

Are Classicists missing a trick with Harry Potter?

2011-07-19T01:18:00.000-07:00

Unsurprisingly, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows Part 2 has smashed UK cinema records over the last weekend. The Harry Potter books and the films which they have spawned are a cultural phenomenon. A generation of children has grown up alongside Harry Potter, in a way which was last seen with Enid Blyton's books a generation ago. In terms of educational use, the narrative of the Harry Potter series provides teachers with a common frame of reference to discuss with their students when thinking about literary and narrative techniques in other writers.

Yet I can't help thinking that Classicists have failed to take advantage of the success of Harry Potter. J.K. Rowling studied Classics as an undergraduate (making her a prime example of the value of a Classics degree) and Classical references permeate every one of her books. Most of the spells used in the stories have Latin roots. However, a Google search for 'Harry Potter and Classics' produces very little relevant material

There is great potential for both individual Classicists and the major Classical bodies to engage with the success of Harry Potter. Other subjects have not been slow to include the topic in their teaching - even at leading universities. Showing how Harry Potter has Classical roots would inevitably increase recruitment for Classics courses at all levels. This is a real opportunity to promote the study of Classics and one which I hope will be exploited.

(In the meantime, the JACT have an excellent Classics quiz on Harry Potter on their website)

A Latin Renaissance Mister Gove?

2011-07-17T07:10:00.000-07:00

According to Hansard, Michael Gove responded to a question on the inclusion of Latin and Ancient History in the new English Baccalaureate by claiming that the demand for Latin in schools indicates that 'We are presiding over the greatest renaissance in Latin learning since Julius Caesar invaded.'

The Secretary of State for Education also cited the example of Mark Zuckerberg as an example of how a knowledge of Classical languages was important for 'one of the most iconic figures of the 20th Century'.

It is admirable to see that the present government respects the place of Classics in the curriculum, but at a time when a major Classics department is facing closure at RHUL, surely it is time for them to show their support for this Classical renaissance in deeds as well as words?

Domitian's Reign of Terror: Fact or Fiction?

2011-07-15T03:53:00.001-07:00

Over on the Newcastle University website, you can access a research paper I wrote during my MLitt studies on Domitian's reign of terror. You can read the paper as a PDF here.

Domitian is always depicted as a 'bad' emperor. In part, this is due to the evident hostility towards him shown by Tacitus, Juvenal, Pliny and Suetonius. Conventionally, the year AD 93 is seen as a turning point in Domitian's reign, when the most extreme period of persecutions against the senatorial and equestrian classes began.

My paper takes a long view of Domitian's reign to argue that, in fact, there was no turning point in AD 93 and that, on the contrary, the use of terror as a political weapon was apparent throughout his reign.

Domitian's reliance on the application of terror is not particularly surprising given his background. His father Vespasian and brother Titus were both successful generals, particularly through their victories during the suppression of the Jewish revolt. Vespasian had previously served during the Claudian invasion of Britain. Domitian, however, had no military reputation to speak of. He had not even taken part in the Flavian seizure of power, when he had remained in Rome. Domitian tried to remedy this through his German campaigns, which were probably less impressive than his propaganda made out. Certainly, his animosity towards Agricola and his British campaign was probably stimulated by Agricola's military successes. The military rebellion of Saturninus in AD 89 must have highlighted Domitian's poor relationship with some of his military commanders. In this atmosphere, Domitian's reliance on terror is perhaps explicable.

Client Kings - Ancient & Modern

2011-07-13T10:11:00.001-07:00

In the furore over phone hacking, one news item has not received the attention it should have, namely the assassination of Ahmad Wali Karzai, the half brother of President Karzai of Afghanistan. Mr Wali Karzai was assassinated yesterday by one of his senior bodyguards. The murder is a blow for both the US and President Karzai, who both relied on the deceased to maintain a hold on the fractious south of the country. Not for nothing was Ahmad Wali Karzai known as 'Mr Kandahar'.

Coalition strategy in Afghanistan relies heavily on the use of local strongmen to hold back the Taliban insurgency. The removal of Mr Wali Karzai leaves a dangerous power vacuum in advance of the anticipated Coalition withdrawal. Although the Taliban swiftly claimed responsibility for the assassination, the motives behind the killing remain unclear. President Karzai now looks increasingly isolated, both within his own country and on the international stage.

The use of local rulers to support the imposition of imperial power is nothing new. One need only look at the Roman invasion of Britain to see a clear analogy. Across the empire, Rome relied on client kings to rule buffer states which protected the imperial frontier. In Britain, client kings provided both an excuse to invade and support for the initial stages of the conquest.

The best known example from Britain is Tiberius Claudius Togidubnus who appears to have ruled the area around Chichester on behalf of the occupying forces. The use of a client king such as Togidubnus allowed Roman troops to be freed up to be deployed elsewhere in pursuing the conquest of the province. It has been argued that Togidubnus also acted as a walking advertisement for the benefits of Romanisation (the process of becoming Roman). Fishbourne villa, the earliest example of such a building in Britain, was palatial in size and grandeur. It is highly likely that Roman craftsmen were imported into the province to decorate the villa. The site as a whole demonstrated the benefits of allying with the invading forces.

Yet client kings were of limited use after the conquest had been completed. Indeed, they arguably made the provincial administration more complicated. There is very little evidence for client kings in Britain after the 1st Century AD. The Coalition, pondering their withdrawal from Afghanistan, should take note. Client kings do not provide a long term viable alternative to establishing peace through other means.

Conference: Living with the Roman Army

2011-07-13T04:35:00.001-07:00

Details of a one day conference on 'Living with the Roman Army' to be held in Manchester can be found here. The event is jointly organised by MANCENT and the Hadrianic Society. The conference will take place on Saturday 24th September 2011.

Classics - An Emerging Skills Gap

2011-07-12T08:05:00.000-07:00

In the latest edition of the Times Educational Supplement, Boris Johnson has called for the 2012 Olympics to serve as a call to arms for Classicists to broaden participation in the subject for the general public. Volunteers are being recruited to provide Latin and Greek classes for young people in London. In the same week, Royal Holloway looks set to close its existing Classics department as a result of HE cuts.

The success of grass roots Classics schemes such as Minimus and the Cambridge Latin Course demonstrate that there is a real thirst for access to Classics among the general public. Programmes on the Classical world (such as Mary Beard's Pompeii) are wildly popular. The subject is thriving at both GCSE and A Level, in both state and independent institutions . In contrast to other subject areas, there is also no shortage of teaching vacancies. Boris Johnson quotes the statistic that 70 Classics teachers retire each year on average, yet only 30 new teachers enter the profession. This is great news for students currently studying the subject.

Yet this should also be a source for concern. The huge cuts impacting on HE will inevitably lead to further reductions in Classics teaching. Language courses are often the first area to be cut (as at Royal Holloway). This will inevitably mean that there will be less qualified potential Classics teachers in the future, despite an increasing demand for the subject in schools and colleges.

The growth of Classics needs to be encouraged at all levels if it is to be sustained. A first step would be signing this online petition to support Classics at RHUL.

Page 1, Chapter 1

2011-07-11T11:44:00.000-07:00

This post marks the opening of my blog 'Imperium Sine Fine'. As the name suggests, I will be blogging on ancient history and archaeology. I will also be discussing modern military strategy and making connections with the past. This blog is intended to promote discussion and debate - so please do comment on anything you find interesting.